Table 3 Summary and findings

Operating systems

• An energy-efficient operating system must be user-centric and context-aware in order to anticipate future battery limitations.

• To prioritize the tasks at runtime operating system should employ self organization based energy management techniques.

Wireless interfaces

• Modern networks can be modeled and simulated in a better way by treating them as artificial Complex Adaptive Systems (CAS), or generalizing as Complex Adaptive COmmunicatiOn Networks and environmentS (CACOONS).

• Energy-efficient communication via wireless interfaces optimization usually requires some collaborative mechanism between operating system, applications, and network infrastructure.

Sensors

• Energy-efficient continuous sensing has become a hot concern for both researchers and developers of mobile applications.

• Several schemes have been proposed for energy-efficient sensing, which combine different sensors to minimize the energy consumption as well as the error.

• Most of the techniques are based on probabilistic models of user’s history and patterns to deduce future locations.

Computation off-loading

• Extensive research is being carried out on using cloud services for energy efficiency in mobile devices. However, it depends on different factors (e.g. the amount of data exchanged, the network state, etc.) which can affect the efficiency of computation off-loading.

• Self organization based collaborative mechanism for resource sharing with co-located devices using low-energy wireless connectivity has shown to be very effective for energy saving and improving the user experience.

Battery management mobile applications

• Recently, increased energy-awareness at application level has also received interest and is likely to gain more attention in the future.

Hardware solutions

• Some researchers have suggested that re-designing the mobile device’s hardware architecture is beneficial for energy-efficient sensing.

• Experimental results revealed that the idea of additional low energy micro-controller or core for managing sensors is actually very effective in terms of saving energy.